Congress passed the Marine Mammal Protection Act (MMPA) in 1972 (P.L. 92-522; 16 U.S.C.§§1361-1423h) to conserve marine mammal populations and protect them from extinction or depletion as a result of human activities. Since enactment, Congress has amended the MMPA at times and passed the most recent comprehensive amendments in 1994 (P.L. 103-238). The MMPA intersects with other marine-related legislation, such as the Endangered Species Act (16 U.S.C. §§1531-1544) and the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act (16 U.S.C. §§1801-1891d). The MMPA, as amended, contains five main provisions, each of which is codified as a separate title and subchapter. Titles I, II, and IV focus on marine mammal protection broadly, whereas Titles III and V focus on specific marine mammal species. Only Titles I, II, and IV are summarized below.Title I of the MMPA, “Conservation and Protection of Marine Mammals,” includes the majority of the act’s provisions, which focus on conserving and protecting marine mammals to ensure they remain “a significant functioning element in the ecosystem” and at “optimum sustainable populations” (i.e., population size resulting in maximum productivity). The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) primarily administer these provisions, together with the Marine Mammal Commission (MMC; discussed below). Title I includes provisions for